Strategic Plan Part I - Organizational Structure Essay Example for Free

Strategic Plan Part I Organizational Structure Essay The context around which a company is organized, the keystones that keep a business functioning is it structure. Organizational structure is what tells participants how an organization is placed together. More importantly, it is how an organization works. The structure of an organization is how leaders are chosen, decisions are made and how participants are recognized. Health care organizations will develop long and short term growth through the evaluation of future financial and operational goals (strategic planning). The process of strategic planning is essential when implementing order or change in an otherwise unpredictable environment. The Organization For this multi-week assignment, the Augusta Care Pregnancy Center will be used to evaluate the different components of the strategic planning process. An organization will develop a vision, mission and values for strategic direction. An organization’s vision is where it wants to be if the mission is successful and conveyed appropriately. The mission is an organizations reason for existence. The mission according to Hunger Wheelen (2011) promotes a sense of shared expectations in employees and communicates a public image to important stakeholder groups in the companys task environment (p. 6). The values of an organization should encompass its core competencies. Value can drive the intent of organizational planners. According to Harris (2007), Guiding principles serve as a platform to nurture desired behaviors in the organization (p. 102). The mission, vision and values are guiding principles the managers and employees will not compromise while they are in the process of achiev ing the mission and pursuing the vision and strategic goals Mission and Vision The Augusta Care Pregnancy Center (ACPC), a non-profit organization, was created to share the good news of Jesus Christ with all they come in contact  with. The vision of ACPC is to â€Å"strive to raise a standard showing Gods concern for mothers and their unborn babies† (Augusta Care Pregnancy Center (ACPC), 2015, About Us). Key Values The organizations key values are to view each person, from the unborn to the aged, as created in the image of God. In addition, to offer a variety of services to women who are facing the challenges of an unplanned pregnancy, those who desire conformation of a wanted pregnancy and to offer temporary financial support. Strategic Planning Model of chosen Organization In most organizations, there is no perfect strategic planning model or process to adhere to in the same manner all the time. Every organization should customize the best approach to suit the purpose of planning, the culture of its associates and internal and external opportunities. Fundamentally, an organization will consider three types of strategy: business, functional and corporate.Business Strategy With the business strategy importance on improvement of the competitive position of a corporation products or services in a specific industry or market segment are served by the business unit. Business strategies are composed of competitive and cooperative strategies (Hunger Wheelen, 2011, p. 7). Functional Strategy This approach is used in marketing or research and development, to attain company objectives and strategies through maximizing resource efficiency. The functional strategy model is more concerned with developing and nurturing an organizations competitive advantage. Corporate Strategy Hunger Wheelen (2011) â€Å"a company’s overall direction in terms of its general attitude toward growth and the management of its various businesses and product lines† describes corporate strategy (p. 7). Corporate strategy is made up of directional and parenting strategy as well as portfolio analysis. The strategy employed by ACPC cannot be determined at this time. Since this organization is an extension of Health Allied Services, nec, further research must be taken to properly identify the strategy being  implemented by ACPC. ACPC organization primarily operates in the Health and Allied Services, nec business / industry within the Health Services sector. This organization has been operating for approximately 7 years. Augusta Care Pregnancy Center is estimated to generate $340,000 in annual revenues, and employs approximately 8 people at this single location (Buzzfile Media, 2015, Business description). Theoretical Framework A system can be defined as a perceived whole whose elements hung together because they continually affect each other over time and operate toward a common purpose (Swayne, Duncan Ginter, 2008, p. 23). Systems theory can have a significant effect on management science and understanding organizations. The complex, embedded and dynamic nature of modern organizations requires a systemic approach to strategic management. There are two main contributions to a systems approach in strategic management (1) To impart guidance on which strategic planning approaches to use when and also on how to view them as a complementary set that is capable of being used in a flexible way to address all aspects of the strategic managerial task and (2) to provide a range of methodologies that can be put in service of the strategic planning process (Gregory, n. d., p. 9). The effect of systems theory in management is it helps managers to look at the organization from a broader perspective The Role of ACPC Organization’s Mission, Vision, and Values in Relationship to Strategic Plan ACPC is a Christian ministry was created for sharing the good news about Jesus Christ. Their focus is to ensure women make good decisions in their everyday lives on topics like pregnancy, avoiding abuse, sexual abuse and etcetera. The first goal of ACPC is to share the news of Jesus Christ. Secondly to guide or direct the women seeking their services in the righteous path of Jesus Christ and what he has promised like the sanctity of marriage or healthy relationships. ACPC also focus on providing mothers of unplanned pregnancy resources available to them. The Current Key Leaders of ACPC Currently the ACPC has only 8 employees in the Augusta, GA location. The contact person overseeing operations is Susan Swanson (Director). ACPC is one of numerous companies employed under the Health and allied services, nec category. Change Management Model ACPC Use From the information gathered on ACPC, I could not foresee any change management models used by this facility. I have requested an interview with Susan Swanson to further develop this topic. The interview is scheduled for the following week. The Governing Board Involvement in Implementing Strategic Goals To determine the involvement of the governing board for ACPC further investigation is needed into Health and Allied Services, nec business and industry. The Organization’s Major Service Delivery and Support Activities in its Value Chain The ACPC looks to offer a variety of services to women. Usually, these women are facing the challenge of an unplanned pregnancy, those who desire conformation of a wanted pregnancy and to offer temporary financial support. In addition to these services, ACPC offers Bible study classes, healthy relationship classes, parenting classes, post abortion support groups, and host of other support classes. References Augusta Care Pregnancy Center. (2015). About us. Retrieved from http://www.augustacpc.org Buzzfile Media. (2015). Augusta Care Pregnancy Center. Retrieved from http://www.buzzfile.com Gregory, A. J. (n. d.). A systems approach to strategic management. Retrieved from http://journals.isss.org Harris, P. (2007). We the people: The importance of employees in the process of building the customer experience. The Journal of Brand Management, 15(2), p. 102-114. Hunger, J. D., Wheelen, T. L. (2011). Essentials of strategic management (5th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education. Swayne, L. E., Duncan, W. J., Ginter, P. M. (2008). Strategic management of health care organizations (6th ed.). Hobkin, NJ: Wiley.

Serum-hepatocyte Growth Factor (S-HGF) in Diagnosis of SPNs

Serum-hepatocyte Growth Factor (S-HGF) in Diagnosis of SPNs Value of hepatocyte growth factor in the differential diagnosis of solitary pulmonary nodules[F1] Haixin Yu, Yan Wang*, Wenduan Ma, Haixiang Yu, Shengtao Shang Abstract Purpose: To evaluate serum-hepatocyte growth factor (S-HGF) in the differentiation of solitary pulmonary nodules(SPNs)[F2].[F3] Methods: The study comprised 42 serum samples from SPN patients and 10 healthy samples as control. The HGF was measured by the commercially available immunoassay[F4].[F5] Serum levels of HGF of 42 patients with SPN was measured by ELISA kit, and compared with the control group of 10 normal subjects. The nodules were diagnosed by operation and pathology. Results: The median level of S-HGF was 180( range from 100 to 300) pg/ ml in the healthy control group, 165( range from 100 to 400) pg/ ml in benign SPNs group and while 395( range from 100 to 1550) pg/ ml in malignant SPNs group, The S-HGF mean level of malignant group was significantly higher than the with significant difference observed between the malignant group and control group(P. Moreover, the malignant group was also significantly higher than the , and between the malignant group and the benign group(Pwhile no significant difference between the benign , but not between the benign group and the control group(Pà ¯Ã‚ ¼Ã… ¾0.05). Furthermore, the S-HGF was also shown no statistically significant difference was observed(Pà ¯Ã‚ ¼Ã… ¾0.05) in different pathologic types of the limited number of lung cancer patients.In addition, when S-HGF in different pathologic types of the limited number of lung cancer patients were compared, no statistically significant difference was observed (Pà ¯Ã‚ ¼Ã… ¾0.05). Conclusion: S-HGF is valuable in the differential diagnosis of solitary pulmonary nodules. It was suggest that the patients with SPNs should consider an operation when the S-HGF level ≠¥250pg/ml, and malignant SPNs are highly suspected while S-HGF level ≠¥400pg/ml, surgical intervention should be taken immediately.S-HGF is valuable in the differential diagnosis of solitary pulmonary nodules. An elevated S-HGF level≠¥250pg/ml in patients with SPNs may strongly speak for malignant nodules and operation is suggested. If S-HGF level ≠¥400pg/ml, malignant SPNs are highly suspected, active surgical intervention should be taken. Key words: diagnosis, hepatocyte growth factor, solitary pulmonary nodule, NSCLClung cancer 1. Introduction The solitary pulmonary nodules (SPNs) is a single mass in the lung less than or equal to 3 cm in diameter, without concomitant pneumonia and atelectasis of involved lung segments and lobes [1]. In the general population, it’s reported that approximately 5% of SPN patients show lung cancer by radiology [2], which is considered one of the most common forms of cancer with a high death incidence ratio in the world [3]. Diagnoses of benign and malignant SPN has been concerned and become a challenge in these decades [4, 5]. Therefore, it is utmost important to improve the method in the characterization of SPNs[6].   With the development of modern medical science and technology, several detecting and monitoring method were used in screening the SPNs and lung cancer [2, 7, 8], Momen[9] et al. have compared three detection methods for identifying malignant SPNs for the sensitivity and specificity. The positron emission tomography (PET) imaging was consistently higher (80 to 100%) for its sensitivity, while was with lower specificity and larger variation (40 to 100%). Also, they found the similar results in dynamic CT with enhancement (sensitivity, 98 to 100%; specificity, 54 to 93%). In studies of CT-guided needle biopsy, sensitivity and specificity performed excellent, but nondiagnostic results were seen approximately 20%. Dalli[8] et al. also showed the similar result in 2013. While Carsten[10] et al. suggested that routine flexible bronchoscopy should be included in the pre-operative work-up of patients with SPNs in his study. Even so, it seems to find a better detection method of long cancer an d characterization of SPNs is still necessary. Serum-hepatocyte growth factor (S-HGF, Serum-HGF) is an important fibroblast-secreted protein that mediates development and progression of cancers[11]. Nagio et al. [12] gave the evidence that the S-HGF levels of patients with small cell lung cancer (SCLC) were significantly higher than those of patients with benign SPNs and healthy subjects. Ujiie et al[13] had proved that the levels of HGF in serum could be used as prognostic indicators of the patients with stage III non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) undergoing surgery and chemotherapy. Kasahara et al. [14] found that higher HGF levels were significantly associated with a shorter progression-free survival (PFS) and overall survival (OS) in patients with non-small cell lung adenocarcinoma. The expression level of S-HGF could be a sensitive indicator and an independent biomarker for evaluating the therapeutic effects and the prognosis in patients with lung cancer. Therefore, we give the hypothesis that S-HGF may be a potential targ et in diagnoses of benign and malignant SPNs associated with lung cancer. In our study, we used Enzyme linked immunospot assay (ELISA) method to detect the S-HGF levels between different serum samples from SPNs patients and healthy subjects. The solitary pulmonary nodule(SPN) is defined as a round opacity ≠¤3 cm in diameter surrounded by lung parenchyma[1].There should be no associated with hilar lymphadenopathy, atelectasis, pneumonia or chest wall pathologies. With more importance attached to physical examination and the development of medical imaging examination technology, the detection rate of SPN is on the increase. In the general population, approximately 5% of all SPNs shown by radiology are reported to be carcinomas[2]. In eight large trials of lung cancer screening, Momen et al[3] have compared the sensitivity and specificity in three detection methods for identifying malignant SPNs. The sensitivity of PET imaging was consistently high (80 to 100%), whereas specificity was lower and more variable (40 to 100%). They found similar results in dynamic CT with enhancement(sensitivity, 98 to 100%; specificity, 54 to 93%).In studies of CT-guided needle biopsy, sensitivity and specificity were excellent, but nondiagnostic results were seen approximately 20% of the time. Carsten et al[4], in a study of 225 patients with SPN of unknown origin, observed that the bronchoscopic biopsy results were positive in 84(46.5%) patients with lung cancer. The differential diagnosis between malignant and benign solitary pulmonary nodules (SPNs) is always a difficult point in clinical practice. In this study, we inv estigate the clinical significance of the serum level of hepatocyte growth factor(HGF) in patients with SPNs. 2. Methods 2.1. Patients According to the definition, inclusion criteria was setà ¯Ã‚ ¼Ã… ¡Ãƒ ¯Ã‚ ¼Ã‹â€ 1à ¯Ã‚ ¼Ã¢â‚¬ °On computed tomography (CT), SPN is a round opacity ≠¤3 cm in diameter surrounded by lung parenchyma.à ¯Ã‚ ¼Ã‹â€ 2à ¯Ã‚ ¼Ã¢â‚¬ °There should be no associated with hilar lymphadenopathy, atelectasis, pneumonia or chest wall pathologies.à ¯Ã‚ ¼Ã‹â€ 3à ¯Ã‚ ¼Ã¢â‚¬ °Regardless of age and gender. In consideration of some influences, exclusion criteria was setà ¯Ã‚ ¼Ã… ¡(1)Inflammation or infection within a month. (2)Surgery or trauma within 6 months. (3)Various liver diseases. (4)Chronic renal failure. (5)Arteriosclerosis. (6)Rheumatoid arthritis and osteoarthritis. (7)Diabetes mellitus. The case group included 42 patients with SPNs, mean age 60.7 years (range, 42 to 72). Besides, 10 healthy adult subjects were chosen as control. 2.2. Specimen collection The morning fasting venous blood of all subjects was collected in sterile polypropylene tubes, containing ethylenediamine tetraacetic acid (EDTA), and immediately centrifuged at 400rpm for 10min. Then, the plasma was stored at -70 °C until the assays were performed. 2.3. Assay for S-HGF We used Sandwich enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay(ELISA) to measure S-HGF. The HGF monoclonal antibody and standard substance for the assays were purchased from American RD systems. Goat-anti-human HGF polyclonal antibody as the primary antibody and donkey-anti-goat IgG polyclonal antibody labeled with horseradish peroxidase as the secondary antibody were both purchased from British biotech company Abcam. 2.4. Pathological diagnoses All the 42 patients with SPNs were pathological diagnosed postoperatively. 12 cases were benign nodules(4/12 were tuberculoma, 6/12 were inflammatory pseudotumor, 2/12 were hamartoma) and 30 cases were malignant nodules(17/30 were adenocarcinoma, 13/30 were squamous carcinoma). 2.5. Statistical methods All data were analyzed by SPSS 19.0. Because the measured data manifested as skewed distribution, geometrical mean Gà ¯Ã‚ ¼Ã‹â€ logG ±sà ¯Ã‚ ¼Ã¢â‚¬ °was calculated in each group after logarithmic transformation had been carried out on each datum. Then, Students t test was performed on both sides. Differences were considered statistically significant at Pà ¯Ã‚ ¼Ã…“0.05. 3. Result The S-HGF data measured of healthy control group, benign SPNs group and malignant SPNs group is shown in Table 1Table 1 are the measured S-HGF data of healthy control group, benign SPNs group and malignant SPNs group. All the data manifest as skewed distribution(All Pà ¯Ã‚ ¼Ã…“0.05). Geometrical mean Gà ¯Ã‚ ¼Ã‹â€ logG ±sà ¯Ã‚ ¼Ã¢â‚¬ °was calculated in each group after logarithmic transformation had been carried out on each datum(Table 2). TABLE 1 The S-HGF levelà ¯Ã‚ ¼Ã‹â€ pg/mlà ¯Ã‚ ¼Ã¢â‚¬ ° of healthy control group, benign SPNs group and malignant SPNs group. TABLE 2 The comparison of S-HGF level of each group after logarithmic transformation had been carried out on each datum. aBenign SPNs group vs healthy control group, Pà ¯Ã‚ ¼Ã… ¾0.05 bMalignant SPNs group vs healthy control group, Pà ¯Ã‚ ¼Ã…“0.05 cMalignant SPNs group vs benign SPNs group, Pà ¯Ã‚ ¼Ã…“0.05 The S-HGF level of benign SPNs group compared with the healthy control group, there were no significant differences (Pà ¯Ã‚ ¼Ã… ¾0.05). The S-HGF levels of malignant SPNs group were significantly higher than those of healthy control group(Psignificant differences (Pà ¯Ã‚ ¼Ã… ¾0.05, Table 3). TABLE 3 The comparison of S-HGF level of adenocarcinoma and squamous carcinoma aSquamous carcinoma vs adenocarcinoma, Pà ¯Ã‚ ¼Ã… ¾0.05 4. Discussion Hepatocyte growth factor/scatter factor (HGF/SF) from the serum of hepatectomized rats was first partially purified and described by Nakamura in 1984[15]. HGF receptor encoded by the c-met proto-oncogene is a member of the tyrosine kinase class of cell surface receptors. As a kind of cytokine, the hepatocyte growth factor(HGF) has widely biological activities, including regeneration, antifibrosis, cytoprotection, and differentiation[16]. Moreover, HGF is a predominant fibroblast-derived factor that stimulates mitogenesis, motogenesis, and the invasion and metastasis of human carcinoma cells [17]. The growth and metastasis of tumors depend on angiogenesis which is the result of the imbalance of promoters and inhibitors. The S-HGF levels in patients with acute hepatitis, chronic hepatitis and cirrhosis were found to be slightly higher than those in normal subjects[18]. So the patients with various liver and gall diseases were first excluded. So far, some studies showed the S-HGF levels were significantly increased in patients with Inflammation, infection, underwent surgery or trauma. Therefore, the patients with inflammation or infection within a month and the patients underwent surgery or trauma within 6 months were both excluded. Johanna et al. [19] had concluded that patients with chronic renal failure (CRF) have a systemic HGF profile reflecting a chronic inflammatory condition with high concentration, but low biological activity, of HGF. Therefore, the patient samples with CRF were also excluded. The S-HGF levels in patients with arteriosclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis, osteoarthritis, and diabetes mellitus were reported to be significantly higher than that in healthy population. So, the patients with these diseases were excluded as well. Tsao et al.[20] showed the HGF messenger RNA(mRNA) and protein were predominantly expressed by the tumor cells in a high percentage of primary NSCLC. Our study showed serum of the healthy control group contained trace amounts of S-HGF, the S-HGF levels of the patients with benign SPNs were nearly close to the healthy control group(PHGF levels of the patients with malignant SPNs were significantly higher than the healthy control group(Pà ¯Ã‚ ¼Ã… ¾0.05) and the benign SPNs group(Pà ¯Ã‚ ¼Ã… ¾0.05). It illustrated that the high level of S-HGF was associated with lung cancer. And it was further confirmed that S-HGF could be expressed by the carcinoma cells in NSCLC. The S-HGF levels of part of patients with squamous carcinoma in the malignant SPNs group were observed to be higher(à ¯Ã‚ ¼Ã… ¾700pg/ml) and the S-HGF statistical analysis by the statistical difference between the squamous carcinoma group and adenocarcinoma group, for the S-HGF, the median level of the squamous carcinoma group was 370(100-1500)pg/ml while the adenocarcinoma group was 420(100-1550)pg/ml, no statistically significant difference between the two groups(P>0.05). No further conclusions could be made, in case of the number limitation of the samples. The result confirmation should be amortized awaits further research. Further analysis of the 20 patients with high levels of S-HGF(≠¥250pg/ml), there are 3 patients(15%) with benign SPNs and 17 patients(85%) with malignant SPNs. Furthermore, for the 20 patients, the result shows that 1 patients (6.25%) with benign SPNs and 15 patients (93.75%) with malignant SPNs in the 16 patients with high levels of S-HGF(≠¥400pg/ml), It reveals that an elevated S-HGF level ≠¥250pg/ml in patients with SPNs are more likely to be malignant and when the S-HGF level ≠¥400pg/ml, malignant SPNs are highly suspected. Conclusion In conclusion, our study shows significant in the differential diagnosis between malignant and benign solitary pulmonary nodules (SPNs) for the S-FGF assay. The S-HGF levels of malignant SPNs group are significantly higher than the healthy control group(P SPNs group(Pà ¯Ã‚ ¼Ã…“0.05). The differences between benign SPNs group and healthy control group have no statistically significant(Pà ¯Ã‚ ¼Ã… ¾0.05). An elevated S-HGF level ≠¥250pg/ml in patients with SPNs are more likely to be malignant, surgical therapy should be considered. If S-HGF level ≠¥400pg/ml, malignant SPNs are highly suspected, surgical intervention is recommended without delay. Hepatocyte growth factor/scatter factor (HGF/SF) from the serum of hepatectomized rats was partially purified and described by Nakamura for the first time in 1984. HGF receptor encoded by the c-met proto-oncogene is a member of the tyrosine kinase class of cell surface receptors. As a kind of cytokine, the hepatocyte growth factor( HGF) has widely biological activities, including regeneration, antifibrosis, cytoprotection, and differentiation[5]. Moreover, HGF is a predominant fibroblast-derived factor that stimulates mitogenesis, motogenesis, and the invasion and metastasis of human carcinoma cells[6]. The growth and metastasis of tumors depend on angiogenesis which is the result of the imbalance of promoters and inhibitors. Sengupta et al[7] had demonstrated that HGF/SF could induce angiogenesis independently of VEGF, possibly through the direct activation of the Akt and ERKs. The S-HGF levels in patients with acute hepatitis, chronic hepatitis and cirrhosis were found to be slightly higher than those in normal subjects[8]. So the patients with various liver and gall diseases were first excluded. So far, some studies have found the S-HGF levels were significantly increased in patients with Inflammation or infection, or underwent surgery or trauma. Therefore, the patients with inflammation or infection within a month and the patients underwent surgery or trauma within 6 months were both excluded. Johanna et al[9] had concluded that patients with CRF have a systemic HGF profile reflecting a chronic inflammatory condition with high concentration, but low biological activity, of HGF. Therefore, the patients with CRF were also excluded. The S-HGF levels in patients with arteriosclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis, osteoarthritis, and diabetes mellitus were reported to be significantly higher than that in healthy population. So, the patients with these diseases were all excluded. Tsao et al[10] had showed that HGF messenger RNA(mRNA) and protein were predominantly expressed by the tumor cells in a high percentage of primary NSCLC. It indicated in our research that the serum of the healthy control group only contained trace amounts of S-HGF, the levels of S-HGF of the patients with benign SPNs were close to those of the healthy control group(Pà ¯Ã‚ ¼Ã… ¾0.05) and the benign SPNs group(Pà ¯Ã‚ ¼Ã… ¾0.05). It illustrated the fact that high level of S-HGF was associated with lung cancer. And, it was further confirmed that S-HGF could be expressed by the carcinoma cells in NSCLC. In addition, Nagio et al[11] had proved that the levels of S-HGF of patients with SCLC were significantly higher than those of patients with benign SPNs and healthy subjects. The levels of S-HGF of a portion of patients with squamous carcinoma in the malignant SPNs group were observed to be higher(à ¯Ã‚ ¼Ã… ¾700pg/ml) and statistical analysis was conducted to fond the statistical difference of S-HGF between the squamous carcinoma group and the adenocarcinoma group. The S-HGF median of the squamous carcinoma group was 370(100-1500)pg/ml and the adenocarcinoma group was 420(100-1550)pg/ml, no statistically significant difference was found between the two groups(P>0.05). No firm conclusions could be made, possibly due to the limited number of cases. It is of concern and remains to be further studied. Further analysis was taken in 20 patients with high levels of S-HGF(≠¥250pg/ml), 3 patients(15%) had benign SPNs and 17 patients(85%) had malignant SPNs. Further observation was made, among the 20 patients, there were 16 patients with high levels of S-HGF(≠¥400pg/ml), 1 patients(6.25%) had benign SPNs and 15 patients(93.75%) had malignant SPNs. It reveals that an elevated S-HGF level ≠¥250pg/ml in patients with SPNs are more likely to be malignant and if S-HGF level ≠¥400pg/ml, malignant SPNs are highly suspected. Ujiie et al[11] had proved that the levels of HGF in serum could be useful prognostic indicators of the survival of patients with stage III NSCLC undergoing surgery and chemotherapy. Kasahara et al[12] had shown that higher HGF levels were significantly associated with a shorter progression-free survival (PFS) and overall survival (OS) in patients with non-small cell lung adenocarcinoma. The expression level of S-HGF could be a sensitive indicator and an independent judgement standard for evaluating the therapeutic effects and the prognosis in patients with lung cancer. Furthermore, understanding the role of HGF in the tumor progression may help in designing new therapeutic strategies for lung cancer. In conclusion, the assay for S-HGF may be of some significance in the differential diagnosis between malignant and benign solitary pulmonary nodules(SPNs). The S-HGF levels of malignant SPNs group were significantly higher than those of healthy control group(Pà ¯Ã‚ ¼Ã…“0.05). The differences between benign SPNs group and healthy control group had no statistically significant(Pà ¯Ã‚ ¼Ã… ¾0.05). An elevated S-HGF level ≠¥250pg/ml in patients with SPNs are more likely to be malignant, surgical therapy should be suggested. If S-HGF level ≠¥400pg/ml, malignant SPNs are highly suspected, active surgical intervention should be taken. References 1.  Hansell, D.M., et al., Fleischner Society: glossary of terms for thoracic imaging. Radiology, 2008. 246(3): p. 697-722[à ¥Ã‚ ¼Ã‚  Ãƒ ¨Ã¢â‚¬ ¹Ã‚ ±Ãƒ ¥Ã‚ ½Ã‚ ª13]. 2.  Klein, J.S. and M.A. Zarka, Transthoracic needle biopsy: an overview. J Thorac Imaging, 1997. 12(4): p. 232-49. 3.  Siegel, R., D. Naishadham, and A. Jemal, Cancer statistics. CA Cancer J Clin, 2012. 62(1): p. 10-29. 4.  Cao, C., et al., A meta-analysis of unmatched and matched patients comparing video-assisted thoracoscopic lobectomy and conventional open lobectomy. Ann Cardiothorac Surg,2012. 1(1): p. 16-23. 5.  Zhan, P., Q. Qian, and L.K. Yu, Prognostic value of COX-2 expression in patients with non-small cell lung cancer: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Thorac Dis, 2013. 5(1): p. 40-7. 6.  Tong, X., et al., [Clinical experience of the treatment of solitary pulmonary nodules with da vinci surgical system]. Zhongguo Fei Ai Za Zhi, 2014. 17(7): p. 541-4. 7.  Aberle, D.R., et al., Results of the two incidence screenings in the National Lung Screening Trial. N Engl J Med, 2013. 369(10): p. 920-31. 8.  Dalli, A., et al., Diagnostic value of PET/CT in differentiating benign from malignant solitary pulmonary nodules. J BUON, 2013. 18(4): p. 935-41. 9.  Wahidi, M.M., et al., Evidence for the treatment of patients with pulmonary nodules: when is it lung cancer?: ACCP evidence-based clinical practice guidelines (2nd edition). Chest, 2007. 132(3 Suppl): p. 94S-107S. 10.  Schwarz, C., et al., Value of flexible bronchoscopy in the pre-operative work-up of solitary pulmonary nodules. Eur Respir J, 2012. 41(1): p. 177-82. 11.  Ma, D.C., et al., [Hepatocyte growth factor did not enhance the effects of bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells transplantation on cardiac repair in a porcine acute myocardial infarction model]. Zhonghua Xin Xue Guan Bing Za Zhi, 2006. 34(2): p. 119-22. 12.  Takigawa, N., et al., Serum hepatocyte growth factor/scatter factor levels in small cell lung cancer patients. Lung Cancer, 1997. 17(2-3): p. 211-8. 13.  Ujiie, H., et al., Serum hepatocyte growth f

Social Stratification And Inequality Sociology Essay

Social Stratification And Inequality Sociology Essay Social stratification is a sociological phenomenon in which people in the society are placed in different ranks with reference to same economic conditions. Normally, there are those of a high standard and others of a low standard. Social stratification borrows classification from earth sciences and thus it refers to its classes as strata. The difference in economic characteristics of persons leads to domination of power by one group to another. Social Stratification is characterized by four core principles namely; Social stratification has been said to be transferable from generation to another. Every generation adopts the classifications that had been set by a generation that proceeded. Social stratification is a societal characteristic and not an individual view. The society forms a uniform way of grading persons which is not a sole persons objective. Social stratification is said to be universal and also variable. Though this statement seems contradictory, it means that classification is uniform in a certain society but will vary when compared with other societies. Lastly, social stratification is not all about equality of persons, but also the beliefs that they hold. This means that social classes in the society are also based on common beliefs. The classification of the society into various ranks brings about inequality. In the western communities, social stratification adopts three key; the upper, middle and lower class. It is due to these classes that inequality is developed. Those of upper class view themselves as superior and having more prestige compared to their counterparts in lower ranks. Therefore, sharing of common resources in the society is based on the stratification ranks. Inequality is a social evil that emanates from social stratification (Bottero 3-8). Origins of the Social Stratification Theory The above theory is said to have emanated from the Judaeo-Christian Bible which presents the social idea of the Greeks. Though the idea was not extremely straightforward at the beginning, it has gone through various transformations to the present day where it presents itself clearly. The Sociological View of Social Stratification and Inequality Various sociologists have had different views and interpretations on social stratification. For instance, Talcott Parsons who was an American sociologist emphasized that stability of social stratus is partly influenced by universal values. On a different note, Marxism identifies unequal distribution of resources and limited mobility to be factors of stratified societies. However, numerous sociologists have had a uniform view with reference to the fact that the wealthy in the society control the political power. In such a case, the poor ought to submit to orders from the rich. Several sociologists had diverse views on the origin and form of the social stratification theory. Below are some of these sociologists and various discussions regarding each one of them. Karl Marx In his theory of Marxism, Karl asserted that social stratification in the society is based on the way people are related to the factors of production. In such, there exist two different categories of persons; those that own the factors of production and those who labor for the owner of the factors of production. The classification by Karl Marx seems to be inadequate especially in the current view of economics. This is because there exist various aspects of the present economy that have been left unsolved by the Marxism theory. For instance; it does not provide accurate categorization as to productive, occupational and economic aspects of society. Modern scholars of economics have said that the issue of social stratifications requires in depth classifications other than the generalized one provided for by the Marxism theory. In fact, theories behind social stratification need to draw a clear cut between the economic aspects of skilled and unskilled labor, owning and managing a business and also between business and professional occupational roles. Secondly, the Marxism theory appears to be so generalized to the extent that it overlooks various vital social-structural phenomena that are of a great influence in the society. These include ethnic affiliations, kinship and lineage affiliations. Modern sociologists have however not ignored these crucial aspects the way Marx did. Thirdly, the theory of Marx on social stratification seems to be so limited in defining the role of cultural factors in social classification. Cultural factors include legal practices, religious norms and scientific ideas among others. It is crucial to note that science has played a key role in maintaining social classes. In summary, Marx defined the relationship between people and property as the key aspect behind social stratification (Jackson chapter 2). Max Weber Weber was thrilled by the propositions of his predecessor, Marx, and hence he thought of making corrections to Marxs theory. Weber designed a model based on status, class and a more explicit and systematic differentiation with reference to social stratification. Unlike Marx who identified property to be the sole determining factor in social stratification, Weber identified status and class as additional factors. Weber built an interconnected model that would define the relationship between these three factors. Any one of factors can affect the other two, and in any case any of these factors can be replaced with another. In his model, Weber also did not cover several key influencing factors like education, ethnic and kinship factors. Below are the definitions that Weber gave to his three factors of influence; He defined class as an individuals economic position in the society with reference to birth and their personal achievement. Secondly, he defined status as the position occupied by an individual in the society as a result of their social honor, popularity and prestige. Weber also defined power as the ability of an individual to progress despite various factors offering resistance in the society (Rossides, 186). Wright Mills Wright sought to advance Webers thoughts on social stratification with no discrimination whatsoever. Similar to Weber, he identified power to be economic oriented but in addition to be influenced by political and military domains. Through his famous book titled The Power Elite, Mills brings out a clear connection between political power and social status in the society. He asserted that the very power embodied persons occupy a certain class in the society. In order to keep themselves relevant in the society, the power elite tend to develop close ties in ideas, work and marital issues. To him, the power elite are clearly defined in education institutions whereby the persons of the high status group attend prominent schools thus preparing them for high class tertiary schools. Conceptual Model to Social Stratification A conceptual model for the current nature of social stratification ought to be multidimensional. It should have considerable measurement techniques and be flexible to accommodate various ideological biases. There appears to be two factors that have led to the resistance of such a conceptual model. These are ideological and methodological oriented. Looking at ideological issues, we find sociologists who still hold on to the traditional ways of classifying people. They want to maintain definitions that are straightforward, clear and self explanatory. However, straightforward definitions have proved to be incompetent in the current nature of society that presents changing and complex situations. With reference to methodology aspects, scientists have had fear of exploring a multidimensional concept because they fear the complex resources and methods that could be involved. The more differentiated a model is the more involving it will be in terms of equipments needed to analyze and the processes that will be involved. Researchers have committed themselves in exploring models that are multidimensional however significant success has not been realized. Studies by the Hindu caste society show that a multidimensional model is necessary. Various dimensions of stratification are closely related to one another, but this does not mean that they are not exclusively autonomous. For instance, such dimensions as power, prestige, income and education are in a way related to one another. However, in some cases, it can be noted that power is independent of the other factors. In fact, in certain circumstances, power may be attained irrespective of occupational prestige. Again, a certain level of education grounds may not be strong enough if not accompanied by money. The key role of a multidimensional model is to address issues of interdependence and independence of social stratification factors. Key Dimensions of Social Stratification Power As defined earlier in this paper and with reference to Karl Marx, power refers to the ability to pursue goals despite resisting factors. Power will be addressed with reference to size and various natures of societies. The degree of division of labor in the society is related to the way typical social classes will be formed. Power exists in two diverse forms; legitimate and illegitimate and hence there cannot be established a direct relation between power and social stratification. Occupational Prestige The various productive roles in the society are accorded different level of prestige. It has been evident that though societies may be different, there will always exist a similarity in the way they accord prestige to various occupations. For instance; some professions like law, medicine and pilot, are given a high level of prestige because they are associated with good amounts of money. The variability of the way occupations are valued is dependent on the way the society values those occupations. Therefore, it is vital to note that prestige accorded to various occupations will differ with reference to the values of the societal setting. Income/Wealth Wealth plays an extremely significant role in social stratification. Whether earned or inherited, wealth will impact the class that a person will occupy in the society. Various profession and business roles in the society offer diverse opportunities in accumulating wealth. Sometimes, the so high ranked roles have proven to accumulate low wealth when compared to low prestige roles. Looking at the example of a professional doctor who uses intellect and professionalism to accumulate his wealth yet he may not gather a lot like a bandit. The latter can accumulate in one night, money equal to that a professional doctor earns in an entire month. When money is used as the determining factor in social stratification, business and professional roles lack relevance. Social stratification on the basis of income influences to a significant extent other dimensions of societal classification. For instance; the level of education gained by a person may be determined by the relative amount of income they have. Disposable income has also not been left out in studying how it influences social stratification. Family and Ethnicity The status of kinship groups and family lineage plays a vital role in determining the social classes in the society. Not once and not twice have persons being seen as wealthy and hence prestigious because their fore fathers were wealthy. The role played by a family in the society in terms of monetary contribution and influence holds a significant support as to why it holds a certain class in the society. The class occupied by a certain family in the society determines the social class it occupies and hence the treatment they will be accorded by the entire society. Family and ethnic position do not however hold a one to one relationship in far as social stratification is concerned. Local Community Status Individuals and families do not live in isolations or islands in the society. Their day to day activities are influenced by norms set by the nature of the community. Families and individuals by extension are given placed under certain social classes due to the way the society operates. The position of the local community in the society is determined by the nature of influence it has on the entire community (Andersen 216-220). Modern Stratification Systems In the contemporary world, there exists three key systems of stratification which are; slavery, the caste system and the class system. Despite various laws disregarding slavery, many people in the world today live in conditions that can be classified as slavery. Slavery Slavery is still eminent in nations such as Ghana, Benin and Mauritania among others. Also, Asia has been mentioned numerously for prevalent cases in sex slavery. Caste System The above is a social system that is based on characteristics and traits those persons posses by virtue of their birth. These traits include body type, race, gender and age among others. The caste system is said to be a rigid one. This means that it assigns various unchangeable castes to persons which cannot be varied. However, persons have in various situations tried to change their ascribed statuses by lying about their age, changing nationality or performing plastic surgery, but not at all times do these attempts yield positive results. Class System Class system classifies individuals in reference to statuses earned and not those individuals were born with. Persons born in a certain social class can choose their careers, education level and spouses. The class system is characterized by social mobility nature. Social mobility refers to the act of moving either up or down the various social strata (Levine) Conclusion Every society has various classes that are assumed by members of the society based on various factors. Common held belief in the society model the way a society sets up these classes. Most common factors that determine classification are education and knowledge, power, prestige, and religion among other factors. Sociologists have formed various theories to address the determining factors of social stratification though no one theory seems to have provided comprehensive coverage. Every society exhibits unique factors and believes, but there exists a close relationship between the way these diverse factors influence social stratification.

Essay --

Your arms can be your best accessories, especially if they're in good shape. A common problem area is the back of the upper arms; women often try to tone up this area, while men tend to work it to gain strength and size. The triceps pressdown, or triceps extension, is an isolation exercise that you can do to target the back of your upper arms. This exercise is beneficial, as long as your form is correct. About the Triceps The triceps is a three-headed muscle, consisting of the lateral, medial and long heads. It engages each time you extend your elbows to straighten your arms. Although many people focus on working the more visible biceps at the front of their upper arms, the triceps shouldn't be neglected, because they make up about 60 percent of your upper arms. Strong triceps can improve your athletic performance, and also protect your elbows; during sudden flexing of your elbows, they minimize stress by acting as shock absorbers. (See References 1, p. 108) Triceps Pressdown Exercise Triceps pressdowns work all three heads of the triceps. The exercise is done while facing a high...

Indie Music :: essays research papers

I heard the term "indie" bounced around a lot these days and I wonder what the definition of indie is. I think of it as a reference to a musician, small record label or film company without an affiliation with a major corporation. I read this article by Bob Baker, the author of "Branding Yourself Online: How to Use the Internet to Become a Celebrity or Expert in Your Field" and the "Guerrilla Music Marketing Handbook." He defines I-N-D-I-E as: I - Inspired He said to embrace the indie frame of mind, you must be inspired. You have to know in your gut that music is what you are meant to do. You must become energized when writing, recording and performing your music. When this kind of natural inspiration comes over you, it's a sure sign that you're on the right path. And you will need this desire to carry you through the ups and downs of pursuing the independent music path. N - Nontraditional Indie musicians don't mind learning about what has come before, and they are happy to listen to the "rules" that others say are required to have a successful music career. However, the smartest indie artists keep their minds flexible and constantly ask questions about how the supposed "rules" of the past really apply to them. They actually develop a mindset that seeks out the road less traveled. And when they spot a good idea that's off the traditional path, they fearlessly go after it without apologies. D - Determined Successful indie artists are fixated on their goals and determined to reach them. They still leave room to veer from the original plan, when needed, but they are steadfast in their desire to produce more and better music, reach more fans, sell more CDs, etc. With this attitude, obstacles become short-term learning experiences along the road to higher levels of success. I - Innovative Being an indie means thinking outside of the proverbial box and looking at fresh opportunities from every angle. It means not promoting yourself the same way a thousand other acts have done it.

Social Media and Business

Business Horizons (2010) 53, 59—68 www. elsevier. com/locate/bushor Users of the world, unite! The challenges and opportunities of Social Media Andreas M. Kaplan *, Michael Haenlein ? ESCP Europe, 79 Avenue de la Republique, F-75011 Paris, France KEYWORDS Social Media; User Generated Content; Web 2. 0; Social networking sites; Virtual worlds Abstract The concept of Social Media is top of the agenda for many business executives today. Decision makers, as well as consultants, try to identify ways in which ? rms can make pro? able use of applications such as Wikipedia, YouTube, Facebook, Second Life, and Twitter. Yet despite this interest, there seems to be very limited understanding of what the term ‘‘Social Media’’ exactly means; this article intends to provide some clari? cation. We begin by describing the concept of Social Media, and discuss how it differs from related concepts such as Web 2. 0 and User Generated Content. Based on this de? nition, we then provide a classi? cation of Social Media which groups applications currently subsumed under the generalized term into more speci? categories by characteristic: collaborative projects, blogs, content communities, social networking sites, virtual game worlds, and virtual social worlds. Finally, we present 10 pieces of advice for companies which decide to utilize Social Media. # 2009 Kelley School of Business, Indiana University. All rights reserved. 1. The specter of Social Media As of January 2009, the online social networking application Facebook registered more than 175 million active users. To put that number in perspective, this is only slightly less than the population of Brazil (190 million) and over twice the population of Germany (80 million)!At the same time, every minute, 10 hours of content were uploaded to the video sharing platform YouTube. And, the image hosting site Flickr provided access to over 3 billion photographs, making the world-famous Louvre * Correspondi ng author. E-mail addresses: [email  protected] eu (A. M. Kaplan), [email  protected] eu (M. Haenlein). Museum’s collection of 300,000 objects seem tiny in comparison. According to Forrester Research, 75% of Internet surfers used ‘‘Social Media’’ in the second quarter of 2008 by joining social networks, reading blogs, or contributing reviews to shopping sites; this represents a signi? ant rise from 56% in 2007. The growth is not limited to teenagers, either; members of Generation X, now 35—44 years old, increasingly populate the ranks of joiners, spectators, and critics. It is therefore reasonable to say that Social Media represent a revolutionary new trend that should be of interest to companies operating in online space–—or any space, for that matter. Yet, not overly many ? rms seem to act comfortably in a world where consumers can speak so freely 0007-6813/$ — see front matter # 2009 Kelley School of Business, India na University.All rights reserved. doi:10. 1016/j. bushor. 2009. 09. 003 60 with each other and businesses have increasingly less control over the information available about them in cyberspace. Today, if an Internet user types the name of any leading brand into the Google search, what comes up among the top ? ve results typically includes not only the corporate webpage, but also the corresponding entry in the online encyclopedia Wikipedia. Here, for example, customers can read that the 2007 model of Hasbro’s Easy-Bake Oven may lead to serious burns on children’s hands and ? gers due to a poorly-designed oven door, and that the Firestone Tire and Rubber Company has been accused of using child labor in its Liberian rubber factory. Historically, companies were able to control the information available about them through strategically placed press announcements and good public relations managers. Today, however, ? rms have been increasingly relegated to the sidelines as m ere observers, having neither the knowledge nor the chance–—or, sometimes, even the right–—to alter publicly posted comments provided by their customers. Wikipedia, for example, expressly forbids the participation of ? ms in its online community. Such an evolution may not be surprising. After all, the Internet started out as nothing more than a giant Bulletin Board System (BBS) that allowed users to exchange software, data, messages, and news with each other. The late 1990s saw a popularity surge in homepages, whereby the Average Joe could share information about his private life; today’s equivalent would be the weblog, or blog. The era of corporate web pages and e-commerce started relatively recently with the launch of Amazon and eBay in 1995, and got a right ticking-off only 6 years later when the dot-com bubble burst in 2001.The current trend toward Social Media can therefore be seen as an evolution back to the Internet’s roots, since it retransforms the World Wide Web to what it was initially created for: a platform to facilitate information exchange between users. But does that mean that Social Media is just old wine in new bottles? Probably not! As we will delve into further, the technical advances that have been made over the past 20 years now enable a form of virtual content sharing that is fundamentally different from, and more powerful than, the BBS of the late 1970s.This article discusses the challenges and opportunities that emerge from this evolution for ? rms, and provides structure to better understand the rapidly evolving ? eld of Social Media. We begin by providing a de? nition and classi? cation of Social Media by looking at their historical roots, technical speci? cities, and differences from other entities such as Web 2. 0 and User Generated Content. We then focus on six types of Social Media–—collaborative projects, blogs, A. M. Kaplan, M. Haenlein content communities, social networki ng sites, virtual game worlds, and virtual social worlds–—and present ways in which companies can ef? iently make use of these applications. Based on this analysis, we then derive a set of 10 recommendations companies should follow when thinking about developing their own Social Media strategy, be it with respect to these aforementioned types or other applications which might emerge in the future. 2. What is Social Media–—And what is it not? As highlighted, the idea behind Social Media is far from groundbreaking. Nevertheless, there seems to be confusion among managers and academic researchers alike as to what exactly should be included under this term, and how Social Media differ from the seemingly-interchangeable related concepts of Web 2. and User Generated Content. It therefore makes sense to take a step back and provide insight regarding where Social Media come from and what they include. By 1979, Tom Truscott and Jim Ellis from Duke University had c reated the Usenet, a worldwide discussion system that allowed Internet users to post public messages. Yet, the era of Social Media as we understand it today probably started about 20 years earlier, when Bruce and Susan Abelson founded ‘‘Open Diary,’’ an early social networking site that brought together online diary writers into one community. The term ‘‘weblog’’ was ? st used at the same time, and truncated as ‘‘blog’’ a year later when one blogger jokingly transformed the noun ‘‘weblog’’ into the sentence ‘‘we blog. ’’ The growing availability of high-speed Internet access further added to the popularity of the concept, leading to the creation of social networking sites such as MySpace (in 2003) and Facebook (in 2004). This, in turn, coined the term ‘‘Social Media,’’ and contributed to the prominence it has today. The most rece nt addition to this glamorous grouping has been so-called ‘‘virtual worlds’’: computerbased simulated environments inhabited by threedimensional avatars.Perhaps the best known virtual world is that of Linden Lab’s Second Life (Kaplan & Haenlein, 2009c). Although the list of the aforementioned applications may give some idea about what is meant by Social Media, a formal de? nition of the term ? rst requires drawing a line to two related concepts that are frequently named in conjunction with it: Web 2. 0 and User Generated Content. Web 2. 0 is a term that was ? rst used in 2004 to describe a new way in which software developers and end-users started to Users of the world, unite!The challenges and opportunities of Social Media utilize the World Wide Web; that is, as a platform whereby content and applications are no longer created and published by individuals, but instead are continuously modi? ed by all users in a participatory and collaborative fashio n. While applications such as personal web pages, Encyclopedia Britannica Online, and the idea of content publishing belong to the era of Web 1. 0, they are replaced by blogs, wikis, and collaborative projects in Web 2. 0. Although Web 2. 0 does not refer to any speci? technical update of the World Wide Web, there is a set of basic functionalities that are necessary for its functioning. Among them are Adobe Flash (a popular method for adding animation, interactivity, and audio/video streams to web pages), RSS (Really Simple Syndication, a family of web feed formats used to publish frequently updated content, such as blog entries or news headlines, in a standardized format), and AJAX (Asynchronous Java Script, a technique to retrieve data from web servers asynchronously, allowing the update of web content without interfering with the display and behavior of the whole page).For the purpose of our article, we consider Web 2. 0 as the platform for the evolution of Social Media. When Web 2. 0 represents the ideological and technological foundation, User Generated Content (UGC) can be seen as the sum of all ways in which people make use of Social Media. The term, which achieved broad popularity in 2005, is usually applied to describe the various forms of media content that are publicly available and created by end-users. According to the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD, 2007), UGC needs to ful? l three basic requirements in order to be considered as such: ? rst, it needs to be published either on a publicly accessible website or on a social networking site accessible to a selected group of people; second, it needs to show a certain amount of creative effort; and ? nally, it needs to have been created outside of professional routines and practices. The ? rst condition excludes content exchanged in e-mails or instant messages; the second, mere replications of already existing content (e. g. , posting a copy of an existing newspaper article on a personal blog without any modi? ations or commenting); and the third, all content that has been created with a commercial market context in mind. While UGC has already been available prior to Web 2. 0, as discussed above, the combination of technological drivers (e. g. , increased broadband availability and hardware capacity), economic drivers (e. g. , increased availability of tools for the creation of UGC), and social drivers (e. g. , rise of a generation of ‘‘digital natives’’ and ‘‘screenagers’’: younger age groups with substantial technical knowledge and 1 willingness to engage online) make UGC nowadays fundamentally different from what was observed in the early 1980s. Based on these clari? cations of Web 2. 0 and UGC, it is now straightforward to give a more detailed de? nition of what we mean by Social Media. In our view–—and as used herein–—Social Media is a group of Internet-based applicati ons that build on the ideological and technological foundations of Web 2. 0, and that allow the creation and exchange of User Generated Content. Within this general de? ition, there are various types of Social Media that need to be distinguished further. However, although most people would probably agree that Wikipedia, YouTube, Facebook, and Second Life are all part of this large group, there is no systematic way in which different Social Media applications can be categorized. Also, new sites appear in cyberspace every day, so it is important that any classi? cation scheme takes into account applications which may be forthcoming. To create such a classi? cation scheme, and to do so in a systematic manner, we rely on a set of theories in the ? ld of media research (social presence, media richness) and social processes (self-presentation, self-disclosure), the two key elements of Social Media. Regarding the media-related component of Social Media, social presence theory (Short, Willi ams, & Christie, 1976) states that media differ in the degree of ‘‘social presence’’–—de? ned as the acoustic, visual, and physical contact that can be achieved–—they allow to emerge between two communication partners. Social presence is in? uenced by the intimacy (interpersonal vs. mediated) and immediacy (asynchronous vs. ynchronous) of the medium, and can be expected to be lower for mediated (e. g. , telephone conversation) than interpersonal (e. g. , face-to-face discussion) and for asynchronous (e. g. , e-mail) than synchronous (e. g. , live chat) communications. The higher the social presence, the larger the social in? uence that the communication partners have on each other’s behavior. Closely related to the idea of social presence is the concept of media richness. Media richness theory (Daft & Lengel, 1986) is based on the assumption that the goal of any communication is the resolution of ambiguity and the reductio n of uncertainty.It states that media differ in the degree of richness they possess–—that is, the amount of information they allow to be transmitted in a given time interval–—and that therefore some media are more effective than others in resolving ambiguity and uncertainty. Applied to the context of Social Media, we assume that a ? rst classi? cation can be made based on the richness of the medium and the degree of social presence it allows. With respect to the social dimension of Social Media, the concept of self-presentation states that 2 in any type of social interaction people have the desire to control the impressions other people form of them (Goffman, 1959). On the one hand, this is done with the objective of in? uencing others to gain rewards (e. g. , make a positive impression on your future in-laws); on the other hand, it is driven by a wish to create an image that is consistent with one’s personal identity (e. g. , wearing a fashionable out? t in order to be perceived as young and trendy). The key reason why people decide to create a personal webpage is, for example, the wish to present themselves in cyberspace (Schau & Gilly, 2003).Usually, such a presentation is done through self-disclosure; that is, the conscious or unconscious revelation of personal information (e. g. , thoughts, feelings, likes, dislikes) that is consistent with the image one would like to give. Self-disclosure is a critical step in the development of close relationships (e. g. , during dating) but can also occur between complete strangers; for example, when speaking about personal problems with the person seated next to you on an airplane. Applied to the context of Social Media, we assume that a second classi? ation can be made based on the degree of self-disclosure it requires and the type of self-presentation it allows. Combining both dimensions leads to a classi? cation of Social Media which we have visualized in Table 1. With respect to social presence and media richness, applications such as collaborative projects (e. g. , Wikipedia) and blogs score lowest, as they are often text-based and hence only allow for a relatively simple exchange. On the next level are content communities (e. g. , YouTube) and social networking sites (e. g. Facebook) which, in addition to text-based communication, enable the sharing of pictures, videos, and other forms of media. On the highest level are virtual game and social worlds (e. g. , World of Warcraft, Second Life), which try to replicate all dimensions of face-to-face interactions in a virtual environment. Regarding self-presentation and self-disclosure, blogs usually score higher than collaborative projects, as the latter tend to be focused on speci? c content domains. Table 1. A. M. Kaplan, M. Haenlein In a similar spirit, social networking sites allow for more self-disclosure than content communities.Finally, virtual social worlds require a higher level of self-disclosure tha n virtual game worlds, as the latter are ruled by strict guidelines that force users to behave in a certain way (e. g. , as warriors in an imaginary fantasy land). We will now provide more detail on each of these six different types of Social Media, and discuss the challenges and opportunities they offer companies. 3. The challenges and opportunities of Social Media 3. 1. Collaborative projects Collaborative projects enable the joint and simultaneous creation of content by many end-users and are, in this sense, probably the most democratic manifestation of UGC.Within collaborative projects, one differentiates between wikis–—that is, websites which allow users to add, remove, and change text-based content–—and social bookmarking applications–—which enable the group-based collection and rating of Internet links or media content. Exemplary applications within this category include the online encyclopedia Wikipedia, a wiki currently available in more than 230 different languages, and the social bookmarking web service Delicious, which allows the storage and sharing of web bookmarks.The main idea underlying collaborative projects is that the joint effort of many actors leads to a better outcome than any actor could achieve individually; this is similar to the ef? cient-market hypothesis in behavioral ? nance (Fama, 1970). From a corporate perspective, ? rms must be aware that collaborative projects are trending toward becoming the main source of information for many consumers. As such, although not everything written on Wikipedia may actually be true, it is believed to be true by more and more Internet users. This may be particularly crucial as regards corporate crises. For example, Classi? ation of Social Media by social presence/media richness and self-presentation/self-disclosure Users of the world, unite! The challenges and opportunities of Social Media when online book retailer Amazon started to test the idea of dynami c pricing, comments declaring such a practice as unfair showed up instantaneously under the Wikipedia entry on ‘‘time-based pricing. ’’ Yet, collaborative projects also provide some unique opportunities for ? rms. Finnish handset manufacturer Nokia, for instance, uses internal wikis to update employees on project status and to trade ideas, which are used by about 20% of its 68,000 staff members.Likewise, American computer software company Adobe Systems maintains a list of bookmarks to company-related websites and conversations on Delicious. 63 3. 3. Content communities The main objective of content communities is the sharing of media content between users. Content communities exist for a wide range of different media types, including text (e. g. , BookCrossing, via which 750,000+ people from over 130 countries share books), photos (e. g. , Flickr), videos (e. g. , YouTube), and PowerPoint presentations (e. g. , Slideshare). Users on content communities are not required to create a personal pro? e page; if they do, these pages usually only contain basic information, such as the date they joined the community and the number of videos shared. From a corporate viewpoint, content communities carry the risk of being used as platforms for the sharing of copyright-protected materials. While major content communities have rules in place to ban and remove such illegal content, it is dif? cult to avoid popular videos–—such as recent episodes of comedy dramas–—being uploaded to YouTube only hours after they have been aired on television.On the positive side, the high popularity of content communities makes them a very attractive contact channel for many ? rms; this is easy to believe when one considers that YouTube serves over 100 million videos per day. In 2007, Procter & Gamble organized a contest for its over-the-counter drug Pepto-Bismol, whereby users were encouraged to upload to YouTube 1-minute videos of themsel ves singing about the ailments Pepto-Bismol counteracts, including heartburn and nausea. In a similar spirit, kitchen appliances manufacturer Blendtec became popular for its bevy of inexpensive ‘‘Will it blend? ’ videos, which have been watched by millions of people. Other ? rms, such as Cisco and Google, rely on content communities to share recruiting videos, as well as keynote speeches and press announcements, with their employees and investors. 3. 2. Blogs Blogs, which represent the earliest form of Social Media, are special types of websites that usually display date-stamped entries in reverse chronological order (OECD, 2007). They are the Social Media equivalent of personal web pages and can come in a multitude of different variations, from personal diaries describing the author’s life to summaries of all relevant information in one speci? content area. Blogs are usually managed by one person only, but provide the possibility of interaction with others through the addition of comments. Due to their historical roots, text-based blogs are still by far the most common. Nevertheless, blogs have also begun to take different media formats. For example, San Francisco-based Justin. tv allows users to create personalized television channels via which they can broadcast images from their webcam in real time to other users. Many companies are already using blogs to update employees, customers, and shareholders on developments they consider to be important.Jonathan Schwartz, CEO of Sun Microsystems, maintains a personal blog to improve the transparency of his company; so does automotive giant General Motors. Yet, as is the case with collaborative projects, blogs do not come without risks. These generally present in two fashions. First, customers who–—for one reason or another–—turn out to be dissatis? ed with or disappointed by the company’s offerings may decide to engage in virtual complaints in the form o f protest websites or blogs (Ward & Ostrom, 2006), which results in the availability of potentially damaging information in online space.Second, once ? rms encourage employees to be active on blogs, they may need to live with the consequences of staff members writing negatively about the ? rm. Microsoft’s former ‘‘technical evangelist’’ Robert Scoble, for example, had a tendency to ? ercely criticize the products of his employer–— before he decided to leave the Redmond-based software company in 2006. 3. 4. Social networking sites Social networking sites are applications that enable users to connect by creating personal information pro? les, inviting friends and colleagues to have access to those pro? es, and sending e-mails and instant messages between each other. These personal pro? les can include any type of information, including photos, video, audio ? les, and blogs. According to Wikipedia, the largest social networking sites are U . S. -based Facebook (initially founded by Mark Zuckerberg to stay in touch with his fellow students from Harvard University) and MySpace (with 1,500 employees and more than 250 million registered users). Social networking sites are of such high popularity, speci? cally among younger Internet 4 users, that the term ‘‘Facebook addict’’ has been included in the Urban Dictionary, a collaborative project focused on developing a slang dictionary for the English language. Several companies are already using social networking sites to support the creation of brand communities (Muniz & O’Guinn, 2001) or for marketing research in the context of netnography (Kozinets, 2002). To promote the movie ‘‘Fred Claus,’’ a 2007 Christmas comedy ? lm, Warner Brothers created a Facebook pro? le via which visitors could watch trailers, download graphics, and play games.Likewise, the Adidas custom soccer community on MySpace allows visitors to asso ciate themselves with one of two brands of elite soccer cleats produced by the German sports apparel manufacturer, and to access product reviews and information on professional soccer players who play using ‘‘their’’ shoes. Some ? rms even go one step further and use Facebook as a distribution channel. Consider U. S. -based ? orist 1-800-Flowers. com, which offers a widget on Facebook called ‘‘Gimme Love’’ whereby users can send ‘‘virtual bouquets’’ to friends or, with a click of the mouse, be directly transferred to the company’s website to send real ? wers. A. M. Kaplan, M. Haenlein hunter–—starts to more and more closely resemble their real life personality. Besides their use for ingame advertising (similar in idea to product placement in blockbuster movies), the high popularity of virtual game worlds can also be leveraged in more traditional communication campaigns. Japanese automo tive giant Toyota, for example, used pictures and mechanics from the World of Warcraft application in its latest Tundra commercial to reach the 2. 5 million players in the U. S. lone. 3. 6. Virtual social worlds The second group of virtual worlds, often referred to as virtual social worlds, allows inhabitants to choose their behavior more freely and essentially live a virtual life similar to their real life. As in virtual game worlds, virtual social world users appear in the form of avatars and interact in a three-dimensional virtual environment; however, in this realm, there are no rules restricting the range of possible interactions, except for basic physical laws such as gravity.This allows for an unlimited range of self presentation strategies, and it has been shown that with increasing usage intensity and consumption experience, users of virtual social worlds–—or ‘‘residents,’’ as they prefer to be called–—show behavior that more and more closely mirrors the one observed in real life settings (Haenlein & Kaplan, 2009; Kaplan & Haenlein, 2009a, 2009b). Arguably, the most prominent example of virtual social worlds is the Second Life application, founded and managed by the San Francisco-based company Linden Research Inc.Besides doing everything that is possible in real life (e. g. , speaking to other avatars, taking a walk, enjoying the virtual sunshine), Second Life also allows users to create content (e. g. , to design virtual clothing or furniture items) and to sell this content to others in exchange for Linden Dollars, a virtual currency traded against the U. S. Dollar on the Second Life Exchange. Some residents are so successful in this task that the virtual money earned that way complements their real life income.Virtual social worlds offer a multitude of opportunities for companies in marketing (advertising/communication, virtual product sales/v-Commerce, marketing research), and human resource and internal process management; for a more detailed discussion, see Kaplan and Haenlein (2009c). 3. 5. Virtual game worlds Virtual worlds are platforms that replicate a threedimensional environment in which users can appear in the form of personalized avatars and interact with each other as they would in real life.In this sense, virtual worlds are probably the ultimate manifestation of Social Media, as they provide the highest level of social presence and media richness of all applications discussed thus far. Virtual worlds come in two forms. The ? rst, virtual game worlds, require their users to behave according to strict rules in the context of a massively multiplayer online role-playing game (MMORPG). These applications have gained popularity in recent years, as standard game consoles–—such as Microsoft’s X-Box and Sony’s PlayStation–—now allow simultaneous play among a multitude of users around the globe.Examples of virtual game worlds inc lude the cod-medieval ‘‘World of Warcraft,’’ which counts around 8. 5 million subscribers who explore the virtual planet of Azeroth in the form of humans, dwarves, orcs, or night elves, to ? ght monsters or to search for treasure; and Sony’s EverQuest, in which 16 different races of players (e. g. , wizards, clerics) travel the fantasy world of Norrath. The rules of such games usually limit the degree of self-presentation and self-disclosure possible, although some users spend so much time with these applications that their character–—be it a warrior, a wizard, or a dragon . Ten pieces of advice for companies deciding to use Social Media Social Media is a very active and fast-moving domain. What may be up-to-date today could have Users of the world, unite! The challenges and opportunities of Social Media disappeared from the virtual landscape tomorrow. It is therefore crucial for ? rms to have a set of guidelines that can be applied to any form of Social Media, whether they are part of the aforementioned list or not. Next, we provide such a set of recommendations. Given that Social Media have both a social- and a media-component, we split our advice into two sections: ? e points about using media and ? ve points about being social. 65 4. 1. Five points about using media 4. 1. 1. Choose carefully There are dozens–—if not hundreds–—of Social Media applications, and new ones are appearing on the horizon every day. If you still need time to run your core business, you simply cannot participate in them all, especially since ‘‘being active’’ is one key requirement of success (see below). Choosing the right medium for any given purpose depends on the target group to be reached and the message to be communicated.On the one hand, each Social Media application usually attracts a certain group of people and ? rms should be active wherever their customers are present. For example, if your main target audience is book lovers, a content community via which users share self-written novels or poems is likely better suited to your purpose than a virtual world which centers on ? ghting dragons and ? nding treasures. On the other hand, there may be situations whereby certain features are necessary to ensure effective communication, and these features are only offered by one speci? c application. For example, when the U. S.Army undertook an initiative in 2007 to reach the Hispanic community, it decided to utilize the social networking site Univision rather than the more popular Facebook. This choice was driven in part by the fact that Univision–—a Spanish-language television network in the U. S. and Puerto Rico–—is the social networking application with the largest Latin American audience, due to an extensive range of telenovelas and Mexican programs produced by Grupo Televisa. However, another reason Univision was chosen is becau se it offers a moderating service which checks comments from users for appropriateness before posting them on the site.In contrast, other applications, including Facebook, allow users to post messages without supervision. 4. 1. 2. Pick the application, or make your own Once you know which game you’re playing, the next decision involves whether to make or buy. In some cases, it might just be best to join an existing Social Media application and bene? t from its popularity and user base. After all, there is no need to reinvent the wheel if somebody has already done it, especially given that Social Media show positive network externalities in the sense that they get more attractive to join the more participants they already have.But in some cases, the right application might just not be available yet. Japan’s Fuji? lm, for example, recently launched its own social network to build a community of photo enthusiasts. In a similar spirit, U. S. -based department store ? rm Se ars collaborated with MTV music television to create a social network around back-to-school shopping. Yet, whatever the ultimate decision–—to buy, make, or both–— it is vital that there is an understanding of the basic idea behind Social Media. It’s all about participation, sharing, and collaboration, rather than straightforward advertising and selling. 4. 1. 3.Ensure activity alignment Sometimes you may decide to rely on various Social Media, or a set of different applications within the same group, in order to have the largest possible reach. In this case, it is crucial to ensure that your Social Media activities are all aligned with each other. A prime example in this context is computer manufacturer Dell and its ‘‘Digital Nomads’’ campaign. Dell uses a combination of social networking sites (Facebook, LinkedIn), blogs, and content communities (YouTube videos) to show how its range of laptop computers enable individuals to become a nomadic mobile workforce.In a similar spirit, Chrysler’s Jeep brand connects with its customers by combining photos shared on the content community Flickr, with groups on social networking sites such as MySpace and Facebook. Using different contact channels can be a worthwhile and pro? table strategy. But remember: one goal of communication is the resolution of ambiguity and reduction of uncertainty, and nothing is more confusing than contradicting messages across different channels. 4. 1. 4. Media plan integration What is true for different types of Social Media also holds for the relationship between Social Media and traditional media: Integration is key!While you may consider these two arenas to be completely different, in customers’ eyes they are both part of the same: your corporate image. Consider the actions of soft drink giant Coca-Cola. In June 2006, a pair of performance artists shot a video featuring a series of geysers they created by dropping Mentos brand mints into 2-liter bottles of Coke; the clip became a major hit on YouTube. Realizing customers’ enthusiasm for this performance, Coca-Cola fostered the sensation by airing the video on late-night television and ensuring broad digital distribution across different content communities.Besides the advantage of 66 high impact/low cost media coverage, the campaign also resulted in a measurable sales uplift. 4. 1. 5. Access for all Although this might sound elementary, once the ? rm has decided to utilize Social Media applications, it is worth checking that all employees may actually access them. Commonly, ? rms block Facebook, YouTube, and Second Life on corporate PCs for fear that staff might spend too much time networking instead of working. While this is certainly a consideration, it cannot imply that employees must have special permission to be able to access the company blog.At the same time, there is a need to curtail the possibility of the entire organization spending all its time producing funny videos and uploading them to YouTube. One possible approach involves de? ning groups of employees whose primary objective is the management of corporate Social Media; all other staff members are treated as occasional participants. Under this scenario, the ? rst group is given administrator rights–—which allows the opening of new discussion threads and deletion of inappropriate posts–—while the second group is not.Also, at some point, it will be necessary to develop certain guidelines for Social Media usage; as done, for instance, by ‘‘Big Blue’’ IBM, which has a corporate charta for appropriate behavior within Second Life. For example, it is important to highlight that every employee needs to identify himself or herself as such when posting a comment on the corporate blog. Otherwise, end-consumers could get the impression that anonymous accounts are used to enable employees to post fake messa ges and overly-positive feedback, which could severely damage the credibility of your whole Social Media campaign. A. M. Kaplan, M.Haenlein else’s than it is about engaging others in open and active conversation. Participants on Social Media applications have the desire to actively engage and to become both producers and consumers of information, so-called ‘‘prosumers’’ (Tof? er, 1980). Be considerate of this need and act accordingly. 4. 2. 2. Be interesting Let’s face it: nobody is interested in speaking to a boring person. As such, if you would like your customers to engage with you, you need to give them a reason for doing so–—one which extends beyond saying you are the best airline in town, or manufacture the most robust kitchen blender. The ? st step is to listen to your customers. Find out what they would like to hear; what they would like to talk about; what they might ? nd interesting, enjoyable, and valuable. Then, devel op and post content that ? ts those expectations. Coffee powerhouse Starbucks, for example, created the ‘‘My Starbucks Idea’’ platform, via which customers can submit new ideas for the company. These ideas are subsequently voted on by other users, with the winners being considered for implementation by Starbucks top management. As stated by Oscar Wilde in his novel, The Picture of Dorian Grey: The one sin for which there is no forgiveness is ennui. . 2. 3. Be humble Never forget that Social Media existed before you decided to engage in them; indeed, in many cases, even before you knew about their existence. In this light, do not expect that you know better how to use them than others who have spent countless hours on Facebook or Second Life, for example. Before you enter any application, ? rst take some time to discover it and to learn about its history and basic rules. Only once you have gained the necessary understanding, start to participate. When aerosp ace and defense ? rm Boeing decided to launch its ? st corporate blog, the site was designed such that users were not allowed to comment on what they saw. Yet, interaction and feedback are critical elements of all Social Media, blogs included. Hence, many readers perceived the Boeing blog as a fake, and simply corporate advertising in disguise. If there is one certain path to failure, it involves thinking that Social Media is just about posting existing TV spots on YouTube or putting prefabricated press announcements on corporate blogs. 4. 2. 4. Be unprofessional Have you ever noticed that in Hollywood blockbuster ? ms, it’s not usually the handsome guy who ends up with the girl, but rather the clumsy, charming one? The same goes for Social Media, and ? rms 4. 2. Five points about being social 4. 2. 1. Be active If you want to develop a relationship with someone, it is always advisable to take the lead and to be active. Social Media are all about sharing and interaction, so e nsure that your content is always fresh and that you engage in discussions with your customers. Consider the aforementioned blog kept by Sun Microsystems CEO Jonathan Schwartz. Via this outlet, the ? urehead discusses–—on an ongoing basis–—his corporate strategy, new product development projects, and company values, and replies directly to correspondence received. In considering your Social Media efforts, be aware that ? rm involvement must extend beyond responding to negative comments and defending product offerings. Social Media is less about explaining why your baking mix, detergent, or shampoo is better than anyone Users of the world, unite! The challenges and opportunities of Social Media would be wise to avoid overly-professional content offerings.There’s no need to spend $100,000 to design the perfect MySpace presence, or hire a professional writer to manage your corporate blog. Instead, try to blend in with other users and don’t be a fraid to make mistakes! Bill Marriott, Chairman and CEO of the Marriott International Hotel chain, uses his blog, for example, to post regular updates and stories from his travels to Marriott properties around the world–—very much in the same way as would a work colleague when describing her last vacation. Social Media users are people like you, who understand that things do not always go smoothly.And, if you’re nice to them, they may even give you free advice on how to do it better the next time. 4. 2. 5. Be honest Last but not least, be honest and respect the rules of the game. Some Social Media–—such as Wikipedia–— may not allow companies to be involved, so do not try to force your way in. Consider Anheuser-Busch, owner of SeaWorld marine mammal parks. Anheuser-Busch tried to ‘‘rectify’’ misleading information on Wikipedia through the use of PR ? rms, and failed miserably at it. Never expect that other par ticipants may not ? d out who stands behind some anonymous user account; after all, you’re dealing with some of the most technologically sophisticated people on the planet. 67 5. Nothing to lose but their chains Today, everything is about Social Media. Some industry gurus claim that if you do not participate in Facebook, YouTube, and Second Life, you are not part of cyberspace anymore. Social Media allow ? rms to engage in timely and direct end-consumer contact at relatively low cost and higher levels of ef? ciency than can be achieved with more traditional communication tools.This makes Social Media not only relevant for large multinational ? rms, but also for small and medium sized companies, and even nonpro? t and governmental agencies. Using Social Media is not an easy task and may require new ways of thinking, but the potential gains are far from being negligible. Dell, for example, states that its use of Twitter–—a micro blogging application that allows se nding out short, text-based posts of 140 characters or less–—has generated $1 million in incremental revenue due to sales alerts. Some ? ms may even be too successful for their own good, as illustrated by Burger King’s ‘‘Whopper Sacri? ce’’ campaign: In December 2008, the fast food giant developed a Facebook application which gave users a free Whopper sandwich for every 10 friends they deleted from their Facebook network. The campaign was adopted by over 20,000 users, resulting in the sacri? cing of 233,906 friends in exchange for free burgers. Only one month later, in January 2009, Facebook shut down Whopper Sacri? ce, citing privacy concerns. Who would have thought that the price of a friendship is less than $2 a dozen?A new trend is on the horizon, though; Watch out for Mobile Social Media! Mobile Web 2. 0 is very similar to Web 2. 0, as discussed earlier. In contrast to its predecessor Mobile Web 1. 0, which relied on proprietary pr otocols (e. g. , WAP) and use-based pricing, Mobile Web 2. 0 is characterized by open standards (e. g. , a transition to the TCP/IP protocol, the technical foundation of the World Wide Web) and ? at-rate systems. Even the manual entry of web addresses using small and dif? cult-to-handle keyboards is becoming history.Soon, all items around you will be equipped with Radio Frequency Identi? cation (RFID) tags that will be able to automatically connect to your mobile phone and send URLs to them, similar to today’s text messages. This technical evolution is laying the groundwork for moving Social Media applications away from desktop PCs and laptops, toward mobile devices. Why log into Facebook if you can easily update all your friends using Twitter? Why wait until you return home to watch the new YouTube video if you can do so conveniently on your iPhone? According to Jupiter Research, the market for Mobile Web 2. evolutions will grow from a mere $5. 5 billion today to an impressi ve $22. 4 billion by 2013. Mobile Social Media applications are expected to be the main driver of this evolution, soon accounting for over 50% of the market. In one way, this surge toward Mobile Social Media can even be seen as another step toward Internet democratization and closing the digital divide between developed and emerging countries. In India, for example, mobile phones outnumber PCs by 10 to 1. In Thailand, only 13% of the population owns a computer, versus 82% who have access to a mobile phone.It is therefore not surprising that the Pew Research Center–—a Washington-based think tank–—estimates that by 2020, a mobile device will be the primary Internet connection tool for most people in the world. Making Social Media applications mobile is likely to tap a currently unexploited base of new users. Even if percapita spending in these countries may still be low, vast population numbers make them relevant for virtually any ? rm. Obviously, Mobile So cial Media does not come without a price. Some would argue that while it enables the detailed following of friends half-way across the world, it can foster a society where we don’t now the names of our own next-door neighbors. Be that as it may, and independent of 68 whether or not one approves of such an evolution, it seems undisputable that (Mobile) Social Media will be the locomotive via which the World Wide Web evolves. Businesses, take note–—and don’t miss this train! A. M. Kaplan, M. Haenlein Kaplan, A. M. , & Haenlein, M. (2009b). Consumers, companies, and virtual social worlds: A qualitative analysis of Second Life. Advances in Consumer Research, 36(1), 873—874. Kaplan, A. M. , & Haenlein, M. (2009c). The fairyland of Second Life: About virtual social worlds and how to use them.Business Horizons, 52(6), 563—572. Kozinets, R. V. (2002). The ? eld behind the screen: Using netnography for marketing research in online communities. Journa l of Marketing Research, 39(1), 61—72. Muniz, A. M. , & O’Guinn, T. C. (2001). Brand community. Journal of Consumer Research, 27(4), 412—432. OECD. (2007). Participative web and user-created content: Web 2. 0, wikis, and social networking. Paris: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Schau, H. J. , & Gilly, M. C. (2003). We are what we post? Selfpresentation in personal web space. Journal of Consumer Research, 30(3), 385—404.Short, J. , Williams, E. , & Christie, B. (1976). The social psychology of telecommunications. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Tof? er, A. (1980). The third wave: The classic study of tomorrow. New York: Bantam Books. Ward, J. C. , & Ostrom, A. L. (2006). Complaining to the masses: The role of protest framing in customer-created complaint web sites. Journal of Consumer Research, 33(2), 220—230. References Daft, R. L. , & Lengel, R. H. (1986). Organizational information requirements, media richness, and st ructural design. Management Science, 32(5), 554—571. Fama, E. F. (1970).Ef? cient capital markets: A review of theory and empirical work. Journal of Finance, 25(2), 383—417. Goffman, E. (1959). The presentation of self in everyday life. New York: Doubleday Anchor Books. Haenlein, M. , & Kaplan, A. M. (2009). Flagship brand stores within virtual worlds: The impact of virtual store exposure on real life brand attitudes and purchase intent. Recherche et Applications en Marketing 24(3). Kaplan, A. M. , & Haenlein, M. (2009a). Consumer use and business potential of virtual worlds: The case of Second Life. The International Journal on Media Management 11(3).

Military Essay

With over 12 years of civilian government, can anyone point to any tangible or credible development in our nation apart from the over inflated GSM services which was done by the Obasanjo government and only one or two state governors performing above par. The rest are just useless, this has been the case with every democratic dispensation right from the first republic. The first republic was slightly better, save some regions. The second, third and the current crops are blatant real thieves in agbada and babariga. Shame on the lot of them. I prefer the military as least we know where we stand and how far we can misbehave. Most infrastructural developments in the country where done under the military regime e.g. – the famous lagos-ibadan expressway – Gowon, the plan was to make that expressway all the way to ilorin. – lagos international airport (known now as MMIA) – Gowon – building of oil refineries – Gowon – 3rd Mainland bridge – Babangida – effective law & order – Buhari – dealing with foreign companies (e.g British Airways) – Abacha – plain level exchange rate – Abacha – festac nigeria – Obasanjo -operation feed the nation – Obasanjo The list is endless, but our civilian governments have been just too merciless, taking jumbo pays and doing absolutely nothing. Someone can help us check, how many bills were passed last year, instead they are always eager or will fight if their allowances are being debated Unfortunately and this is sad, we in Nigeria are not yet ripe or intellectuall y developed to operate a democratic government What is needed is a real tough no nonsense military ruler, who specialises in kicking backsides